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At the beginning of the 20th century, Europe was living in peace and prosperity. The "Belle Époque" was an outgrowth of previous important historical events and developments. The networks that were created and which evolved funneled both people and their products, tangible and intangible. It was within this multi-layered world that sound recording and sound reproduction was invented. Cosmopolitanism in large urban centers favored polystylisms and polymorphisms. Colonialism, revolutions, conflicts, refugee flows; the theater, cinema, radio, photography, orchestras’ tours, but also releases in all kinds of commercial channels in a world that evolved dynamically and anisotropically formed a complex network of "centers" and "peripheries" in alternating roles setting musical idioms in motion, both literally and figuratively. The networks in which the Greek-speaking musics participate, constantly conversing with their co-tenants, are magnificent. Discography had already provided important tools in understanding the relationships that developed between "national" repertoires. Within these networks, already existing tendencies and aesthetic currents are often created or integrated, especially during the period when the phenomenon of sound recording and reproduction takes on commercial, mass and universal dimensions. A typical example is exoticism, as manifested in its various representations.
It has been found in the European vocabulary since the end of the 16th century, although its widespread prevalence as a trend was associated with the colonial imperialism of the 19th century (Netto, 2015: 13). Since then, the term has incorporated various levels of reading and interpretating anything “Other”. Its meaning concerns, on the one hand, the characteristics of that which is outside the sphere of identity and, on the other hand, the attraction exerted by that which has such characteristics. The widespread acceptance of the phenomenon of exoticism is obvious: the multidimensional linguistic, musical and visual wealth accumulated around and within exoticism created a common stock of knowledge that perpetually feeds the collective and individual imaginary.
Focusing on the modern Greek communities, we find very early established traces of exoticism in poetry and literature, which are quickly transferred to the theater, enriched in terms of their visual and dramatic texture. The explosion of popular forms of spectacle and mass entertainment in the 20th century will radiate their reach. In Greece, among all artistic fields, the most persistent and most obvious presence of exoticism is found in singing. In the era of discography, the advance of exoticism is irresistible and leaves a very strong imprint. However much it seems to be defined by the principle of "locality", exoticism is a global aesthetic constant, a "common" language of the new age strongly marked by modernism and inscribed in a complex and lengthy process of osmosis among "national" musicians, which produces repertoires with "ecumenical" or global characteristics.
The locations represented in exoticism, that is, the East, Latin America, Spain, Hawaii, are par excellence imaginary, disconnected from the real world. They are revealed like a theatrical stage, with alternating scenes, where fantasies are dramatized, overwhelm the senses and release intense emotions, offering the "visitor" an ideal experience, outside the limitations of the conventional world: an eternal feast, pleasures, adventure.
Gypsies are represented as permanently stateless and uprooted, as a primitive wandering otherness that transcends all kinds of borders. They do not belong where they wander and remain unassimilated by space and time. They exist on the fringes of civilization or on the margins of society, outside of common experience and refusing to conform to established social norms. They are depicted within the West but not as Westerns, within the modernity but not as modern.
The vocabulary that describes the Gypsies recalls, first and foremost, the physical characteristics: black eyes and hair, which correspond to a model of wild exotic beauty. The tent, the temporary abode of the wandering nomads, marks the privacy of the amorous refuge within the potential immensity of the caravan’s trajectory. A key stereotype surrounding Gypsy culture is the concept of freedom, which is reflected in the nomadic lifestyle. This freedom gives rise to contradictory feelings, and does not prevent their marginalization. In poetry however, the beautiful gypsy girl remains the ultimate symbol of the dissolution of bonds and inhibitions that only love can cause. Her exotic beauty becomes a metonym for the practice of magic, which captivates the recipient. Gypsy girls can curse, bind with spells and herbs, or break tormenting spells. They can predict the future through card reading, palmistry and astrology. Gypsy men are mainly associated with music; the image of a Gypsy playing the violin is typical.
Perouze's aria is part of the second act of the opera of the same name, set to music by Theofrastos Sakellaridis and libretto by Giorgos Tsokopoulos (see here), which premiered at the Olympia Theater on 9/8/1911 by the "Ellinikon Melodrama" (Greek Melodrama) troupe. The performer of Perouze's leading role was the mezzo-soprano Olga Pikopoulou-Papadiamantopoulou-Valtetsioti, known to the general public as Revekka. In fact, the actress is depicted on the covers of the commercial musical scores of the song "Ballada tis Perouze" and "To paramythi tis neraidas" (see here and here respectively), which comes from the same opera.
The play refers to the gypsy girl Perouze, whom Thanos falls in love with, although he is engaged to Anthoula. Perouze's response to Thanos' love will lead to a dramatically fatal ending. In the magazine Chronika (Chronicles, 3rd year, volume 2, No. 2, Constantinople [Istanbul] 15/8/1911, p. 24), in the regular column "Idika mas kai xena", the following are mentioned: "Gypsies are coming to a small village in Greece. The villagers fear that harm will come to them as a result. The leader of the Gypsies tells them not to be afraid, because they too are good and honest people, just like everyone else. Perouze entertains them with her songs, songs of the old days. And yet, what the villagers feared happened. Perouze falls in love with the fisherman Thanos, who is betrothed to Anthoula, the beautiful and rich noblewoman. Thanos is enchanted by the charm of Perouze's song, forgets his fiancée and dedicates himself wholeheartedly to the Gypsy girl. But in one of their romantic meetings, the leader of the Gypsies arrives and kills Thanos. The other Gypsies drag Perouze out of the tent and kill her, because she dared to betray the traditions of her tribe".
Although the usual and clear elements of the exotic representations of the Gypsies are not found in the lyrics, the fairy-tale and metaphysical atmosphere – intrinsic to exoticism – is explicitly suggested, with Perouze appearing as a sort of fairy who tries to seduce the fisherman Thanos. At the same time, at the musical level, one of the most characteristic tools of exoticism is used, the habanera rhythm. We should probably mention, for example, the most popular use of rhythm in exoticism in the famous song "Habanera (L'amour est un oiseau rebelle)" from the first act of the opera "Carmen" by Georges Bizet (a typical example from historical discography, by the French soprano Emma Calvé, Victor C4427 – 88085, recorded on April 22, 1907, probably in Philadelphia).
In addition to this recording, three other recordings of the aria can be found in historical discography:
– "Neraida - Perouze", by Marika Papagkika (Columbia USA 85353-1 – E4779), recorded around July 1919, in New York.
– "Perouze", by M. Vachtsevanoglou and the Elliniki Estudiantina (Greek Estudiantina) (Gramophone 17330u - 14-12478 and Victor 65981), recorded on September 19, 1919, in Constantinople.
– "Neraida tou gialou", by the soprano Eleni Vlachopoulou (His Master's Voice CS253 – AP7), recorded on March 6, 1922, in Athens.
Five versions of the commercial musical score of the song were also found (see here and here). In four of them there are two additional stanzas of lyrics which, however, are not interpreted in the recordings that have been found to date. This is not surprising, as the playback time of the records used for folk and popular musical styles dictated recordings that did not exceed four minutes or so. On the contrary, during the performances, the aria lasted significantly longer.
It is worth noting that a piano roll of the aria (Perouze, The Starr Piano D-73) was found during the research on Greek piano rolls by Nikos Dionysopoulos, and their recordings are to be included in an upcoming publication.
As Theodoros Chatzipantazis and Lila Maraka point out (1977: 334, point 1): "In the spring of 1911, an unusual number of gypsy caravans appeared in the region of Attica. A large colony from Krakow, which impressed the Athenians with the cleanliness and general decency of its members, settled in the neighborhood of Votanikos. (See related comments in the magazine 'Eikonografimeni', May 1911, p. 112). Another group settled at the Kifissia railway station, which became quite the fashionable thing among the aristocratic circles of the suburb. They were paid to play music and sing for them. Th. Sakellaridis himself, who wrote the music of the revue 'Panathinaia 1911', went on trips to the gypsy villages of the region of Attica with his protagonist Mrs. Reveka in order to get inspired for his melodrama 'Perouze', a play that talked about gypsies. (See his interview in the newspaper 'Athinai', July 17, 1911)."
Research and text: George Evangelou, Leonardos Kounadis and Nikos Ordoulidis
At the beginning of the 20th century, Europe was living in peace and prosperity. The "Belle Époque" was an outgrowth of previous important historical events and developments. The networks that were created and which evolved funneled both people and their products, tangible and intangible. It was within this multi-layered world that sound recording and sound reproduction was invented. Cosmopolitanism in large urban centers favored polystylisms and polymorphisms. Colonialism, revolutions, conflicts, refugee flows; the theater, cinema, radio, photography, orchestras’ tours, but also releases in all kinds of commercial channels in a world that evolved dynamically and anisotropically formed a complex network of "centers" and "peripheries" in alternating roles setting musical idioms in motion, both literally and figuratively. The networks in which the Greek-speaking musics participate, constantly conversing with their co-tenants, are magnificent. Discography had already provided important tools in understanding the relationships that developed between "national" repertoires. Within these networks, already existing tendencies and aesthetic currents are often created or integrated, especially during the period when the phenomenon of sound recording and reproduction takes on commercial, mass and universal dimensions. A typical example is exoticism, as manifested in its various representations.
It has been found in the European vocabulary since the end of the 16th century, although its widespread prevalence as a trend was associated with the colonial imperialism of the 19th century (Netto, 2015: 13). Since then, the term has incorporated various levels of reading and interpretating anything “Other”. Its meaning concerns, on the one hand, the characteristics of that which is outside the sphere of identity and, on the other hand, the attraction exerted by that which has such characteristics. The widespread acceptance of the phenomenon of exoticism is obvious: the multidimensional linguistic, musical and visual wealth accumulated around and within exoticism created a common stock of knowledge that perpetually feeds the collective and individual imaginary.
Focusing on the modern Greek communities, we find very early established traces of exoticism in poetry and literature, which are quickly transferred to the theater, enriched in terms of their visual and dramatic texture. The explosion of popular forms of spectacle and mass entertainment in the 20th century will radiate their reach. In Greece, among all artistic fields, the most persistent and most obvious presence of exoticism is found in singing. In the era of discography, the advance of exoticism is irresistible and leaves a very strong imprint. However much it seems to be defined by the principle of "locality", exoticism is a global aesthetic constant, a "common" language of the new age strongly marked by modernism and inscribed in a complex and lengthy process of osmosis among "national" musicians, which produces repertoires with "ecumenical" or global characteristics.
The locations represented in exoticism, that is, the East, Latin America, Spain, Hawaii, are par excellence imaginary, disconnected from the real world. They are revealed like a theatrical stage, with alternating scenes, where fantasies are dramatized, overwhelm the senses and release intense emotions, offering the "visitor" an ideal experience, outside the limitations of the conventional world: an eternal feast, pleasures, adventure.
Gypsies are represented as permanently stateless and uprooted, as a primitive wandering otherness that transcends all kinds of borders. They do not belong where they wander and remain unassimilated by space and time. They exist on the fringes of civilization or on the margins of society, outside of common experience and refusing to conform to established social norms. They are depicted within the West but not as Westerns, within the modernity but not as modern.
The vocabulary that describes the Gypsies recalls, first and foremost, the physical characteristics: black eyes and hair, which correspond to a model of wild exotic beauty. The tent, the temporary abode of the wandering nomads, marks the privacy of the amorous refuge within the potential immensity of the caravan’s trajectory. A key stereotype surrounding Gypsy culture is the concept of freedom, which is reflected in the nomadic lifestyle. This freedom gives rise to contradictory feelings, and does not prevent their marginalization. In poetry however, the beautiful gypsy girl remains the ultimate symbol of the dissolution of bonds and inhibitions that only love can cause. Her exotic beauty becomes a metonym for the practice of magic, which captivates the recipient. Gypsy girls can curse, bind with spells and herbs, or break tormenting spells. They can predict the future through card reading, palmistry and astrology. Gypsy men are mainly associated with music; the image of a Gypsy playing the violin is typical.
Perouze's aria is part of the second act of the opera of the same name, set to music by Theofrastos Sakellaridis and libretto by Giorgos Tsokopoulos (see here), which premiered at the Olympia Theater on 9/8/1911 by the "Ellinikon Melodrama" (Greek Melodrama) troupe. The performer of Perouze's leading role was the mezzo-soprano Olga Pikopoulou-Papadiamantopoulou-Valtetsioti, known to the general public as Revekka. In fact, the actress is depicted on the covers of the commercial musical scores of the song "Ballada tis Perouze" and "To paramythi tis neraidas" (see here and here respectively), which comes from the same opera.
The play refers to the gypsy girl Perouze, whom Thanos falls in love with, although he is engaged to Anthoula. Perouze's response to Thanos' love will lead to a dramatically fatal ending. In the magazine Chronika (Chronicles, 3rd year, volume 2, No. 2, Constantinople [Istanbul] 15/8/1911, p. 24), in the regular column "Idika mas kai xena", the following are mentioned: "Gypsies are coming to a small village in Greece. The villagers fear that harm will come to them as a result. The leader of the Gypsies tells them not to be afraid, because they too are good and honest people, just like everyone else. Perouze entertains them with her songs, songs of the old days. And yet, what the villagers feared happened. Perouze falls in love with the fisherman Thanos, who is betrothed to Anthoula, the beautiful and rich noblewoman. Thanos is enchanted by the charm of Perouze's song, forgets his fiancée and dedicates himself wholeheartedly to the Gypsy girl. But in one of their romantic meetings, the leader of the Gypsies arrives and kills Thanos. The other Gypsies drag Perouze out of the tent and kill her, because she dared to betray the traditions of her tribe".
Although the usual and clear elements of the exotic representations of the Gypsies are not found in the lyrics, the fairy-tale and metaphysical atmosphere – intrinsic to exoticism – is explicitly suggested, with Perouze appearing as a sort of fairy who tries to seduce the fisherman Thanos. At the same time, at the musical level, one of the most characteristic tools of exoticism is used, the habanera rhythm. We should probably mention, for example, the most popular use of rhythm in exoticism in the famous song "Habanera (L'amour est un oiseau rebelle)" from the first act of the opera "Carmen" by Georges Bizet (a typical example from historical discography, by the French soprano Emma Calvé, Victor C4427 – 88085, recorded on April 22, 1907, probably in Philadelphia).
In addition to this recording, three other recordings of the aria can be found in historical discography:
– "Neraida - Perouze", by Marika Papagkika (Columbia USA 85353-1 – E4779), recorded around July 1919, in New York.
– "Perouze", by M. Vachtsevanoglou and the Elliniki Estudiantina (Greek Estudiantina) (Gramophone 17330u - 14-12478 and Victor 65981), recorded on September 19, 1919, in Constantinople.
– "Neraida tou gialou", by the soprano Eleni Vlachopoulou (His Master's Voice CS253 – AP7), recorded on March 6, 1922, in Athens.
Five versions of the commercial musical score of the song were also found (see here and here). In four of them there are two additional stanzas of lyrics which, however, are not interpreted in the recordings that have been found to date. This is not surprising, as the playback time of the records used for folk and popular musical styles dictated recordings that did not exceed four minutes or so. On the contrary, during the performances, the aria lasted significantly longer.
It is worth noting that a piano roll of the aria (Perouze, The Starr Piano D-73) was found during the research on Greek piano rolls by Nikos Dionysopoulos, and their recordings are to be included in an upcoming publication.
As Theodoros Chatzipantazis and Lila Maraka point out (1977: 334, point 1): "In the spring of 1911, an unusual number of gypsy caravans appeared in the region of Attica. A large colony from Krakow, which impressed the Athenians with the cleanliness and general decency of its members, settled in the neighborhood of Votanikos. (See related comments in the magazine 'Eikonografimeni', May 1911, p. 112). Another group settled at the Kifissia railway station, which became quite the fashionable thing among the aristocratic circles of the suburb. They were paid to play music and sing for them. Th. Sakellaridis himself, who wrote the music of the revue 'Panathinaia 1911', went on trips to the gypsy villages of the region of Attica with his protagonist Mrs. Reveka in order to get inspired for his melodrama 'Perouze', a play that talked about gypsies. (See his interview in the newspaper 'Athinai', July 17, 1911)."
Research and text: George Evangelou, Leonardos Kounadis and Nikos Ordoulidis
© 2019 KOUNADIS ARCHIVE
